Outline and evaluate research into celebrity stalking (8+16)

Stalking is define as 'the wilful, malicious and repeated following or harassment of another person threatening his or her safety', with celebrity stalking constituting for about 1% of stalking cases. 

Two types of stalking have been identified; love obsession and simple obsessional stalking. Love obsession is a fixation with another person (such as a celebrity) which they have no personal connection with. Stalkers of this type suffer from delusional thought patterns and may suffer a mental disorder such as schizophrenia. Most are unable to create real relationships therefore create fictitious ones which they try to act out in real life. The second type, simple obsessional stalking, is more common and distinguished by some previous personal relationship having existed between the stalker and the victim before the stalking behaviour began. 

The two main explanations for stalking are personality theory and attachment theory. Personality theory suggests stalking is an extreme form of celebrity worship by those who score highly in the borderline-pathological dimensions of the CAS (celebrity attitude scale). Attachment theory proposes that celebrity stalking may be an extreme manifestation of the insecure attachment type. 

Bartholomew and Horowitz proposed a model of adult attachment styles. One of these is 'pre-occupied' and has been linked to celebrity stalking. Individuals with this type of attachment have a negative self-model and a positive other-model. Therefore the individual seeks validation from others. Meloy claims that celebrity stalking could be indicative of abnormal attachments. Individuals with this attachment may engage in celebrity stalking because they over value others and perceive contact with celebrities will indicate they are accepted and valued, thus challenging their negative views on themselves. 

Tonin found a significant number of stalkers were found to have insecure attachments compared to a control group. Therefore this supports the theory that certain attachment types can lead to increased likelihood of stalking. However, self-report measures were used to measure attachment type through the use of questionnaires. This may lack reliability as they are often subjective to how the individual was feeling that day therefore their assessed attachment type may not be accurate. Additionally, questionnaires were used to assess the stalkers' retrospective childhood attachment styles. Such measures require the individual to answer questionnaires about their childhood which they may not remember leading them to guess answers to questions further hindering reliability and validity in determining their attachment type. Therefore firm conclusions cannot be drawn between attachment and susceptibility of stalking. 

Maltby et al claimed that the tendency to engage in stalking behaviour may actually be indicative of underlying psychopathology. They found scores of OCD correlated with measures of the CAS intense-personal and borderline-pathological. Stalkers sometimes behave irrationally toward their victims, which may reflect underlying psychopathology. However, this is correlational data and cause and effect cannot be determined. Not everyone with OCD develops stalking behaviour and not all stalkers will have OCD tendencies, therefore to assume this is reductionist. Additionally, this explanation is deterministic and ignores the role of free will humans have in behaviour. Individuals have the capability to control whether they stalk someone however this is ignored in research. 

Research into stalking has real world applications for example the creation of anti-stalking legislation. In the UK and US there are anti-stalking laws. The issue with these laws is that there are still basic rights of freedom and fans are encouraged to be adoring. It may become difficult to assess when fans behaviour becomes stalking. Therefore this highlights the importance of research into stalking as it aids in determining what factors make an individual most likely to display stalking behaviour, helping to protect celebrities. 

However, such research evidence may be socially sensitive as it may lead to stigmatising against or observation of those with such traits or personality types. Even though it is not certain that they will develop stalking behaviour. 

Outline and evaluate research into celebrity worship (8+16)

Most research into celebrity worship has used the Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS), a 17 item scale, with lower scores indicating more individualistic behaviour e.g. reading about celebrities and higher scores indicating over-identification and obsession with celebrities. Maltby et al used this scale to produce 3 levels of parasocial relationships; entertainment social, intense-personal and borderline-pathological.

Within the entertainment social stage fans are attracted to a favourite celebrity because of their entertainment and social value. The intense-personal stage reflects intensive and compulsive feelings for the celebrity. The borderline-pathological stage is define by uncontrollable behaviour and fantasies about the celebrity. 

Celebrity worship may be more common than people think. Maltby found one third of a student sample scored above the midpoints in the three subscales of the CAS. In a later study a sample of 372 people aged 18-47, 15% were at the entertainment-social level, 5% the intense personal level and less than 2% were considered borderline-pathological. 

Maltby concluded celebrity worshippers have lower psychological well-being than non-worshippers. It is suggested celebrity worshipper may not have rewarding social relationships therefore make parasocial relationships with celebrities to satisfy their need for interaction. Further studies have suggested that while the entertainment-social subscale predicts social dysfunction in individuals, scores on the intense-personal scale predict both depression and anxiety disorders. Linking celebrity worship to poor mental well-being. However, CAS has been criticised for being reductionist as it does not take into consideration other factors such as biological predisposition or attachment type in forming celebrity worshipping. Also this assumes that everyone with poor mental health will stalk celebrities however this is not the case highlighting other factors must be present. 

Yue et al found that idol worship was associated with lower levels of work and self-esteem as well as less successful identity achievement. Teenagers worshipping TV idols showed the lowest identity achievement suggesting celebrity worship could be associated with developmental problems. Methodological issues occur as the study used telephone surveys therefore participants may have not answered truthfully. They may have used celebrity worship as an excuse for lower levels of work. Demand characteristics may have been shown, answering in ways which they thought was expected of them. However, this study also found that children who worshipped family members or real people within their social circle tended to have higher levels of self-esteem and educational achievement. This is likely because such admiration in those that have an impact on the teenagers life will likely produce a greater positive outcome than celebrities where only a one-way parasocial relationship exists. 

Philips study revealed high profile celebrity suicides were often followed by an increased number of suicides among the general population. Highlight the negative and dangerous consequences of celebrity worship. However, such studies are correlational therefore cause and effect are difficult to determine. It may be other confounding variables that affected subsequent suicide rates. For example the amount of media coverage the celebrity suicide received and also the way in which it was reported likely will have an effect.

Sheridan et al suggested pathological worshippers often were drawn to rebellious, entertaining and anti-social celebrities and therefore may then emulate similar behaviour with negative consequences for the worshipper such as suicide. Therefore research has real world applications in how celebrity deaths should be reported in the media. The media should not glamorise the death and detract information away from other mental health or drug related problems that the individual may have been dealing with, which led to their death. Hopefully reducing the negative behaviours shown by celebrity worshippers. 

Issues with most research studies are they ignore evolutionary explanations of celebrity worship. Such explanations suggest it is natural for humans to look up to those who receive attention because this is an indication of them succeeding in life. Therefore we look at those who have achieved fame and fortune and attempt to emulate them in hope of becoming successful. 

Evolutionary explanations of the attraction of celebrity (8+16)

Humans possess a love for novelty, known as neophilla. For females choosing a mate this would have led to a demand of creative displays from potential mates in the EEA (environment of evolutionary adaptation). Mate choice in the EEA may have favoured creativity, which would explain why many characteristics unique to humans such as music, art and humour have developed. 

Gossip and language have evolved to fulfil several functions; one is communication and social interaction within a group. Dunbar believed during the EEA groups grew large therefore gossip became an effective way of passing information about social relationships and hierarchies. Gossipping increased knowledge of events within a group and 'good gossipers' enhanced survival chances as they were aware of rivalries, affairs of others and knew information regarding vital resources. 

Natural selection may have favoured development of skills that enhance survival. But sexual selection may have favoured minds prone to creativity and fantasy. Celebrities have several of these qualities, therefore evolutionary explanations suggest we will inevitably find them attractive. It is also suggested individuals desire to become celebrities, therefore through imitating them it is thought to bring about similar resources, production and reproduction opportunities, therefore has adaptive value. 

Shirashi et al discovered an enzyme which correlated with novelty seeking behaviour. Genetic differences cause people to produce different variations of an enzyme called MAOA (monoamine oxidase). Researchers found that one form of this enzyme was associated with higher scores of novelty seeking behaviour suggesting there may be a genetic origin for neophilla and our attraction to creative people may be an evolved response. However, this assumption is based on correlational data, therefore we cannot determine cause and effect. Other variables may have effected production of the enzyme. Also this only explains love of novelty and attraction to creative people. But, it does not explain how or why this occurs. 

Gossipping may help elevate status and cement social relationships improving survival chances. This may explain the appeal of celebrity journalism as celebrities are seen as the top of the hierarchy. Keeping up to date with celebrities behaviours is seen as beneficial to shaping ones own behaviour. Celebrity magazines allow individuals to do this, therefore explains their popularity. However, the majority of celebrity gossip magazines are read by females. Therefore this explanation may not apply to males therefore lacks external validity and wider generalisations. Weakening the evolutionary approach as it suggests all humans would want to find out information about celebrities, which is not the case. 

Sexual selection explains that creative traits are proffered because they are deemed 'attractive' however this does not not provide a complete explanation as to why these traits are deemed attractive in the opposite sex. Fieldman found females were attracted to male celebrities because of qualities such as toughness, stamina and high levels of testosterone, all indicators of good genetic quality and the ability to provide resources. These findings support evolutionary explanations as such qualities increased survival and reproduction chances explaining female interest in male celebrities. However, this theory cannot explain out interest in homosexual celebrities as if celebrity attraction served an evolutionary advantage our interests should be limited to heterosexual celebrities. However, this is not the case further highlighting the evolutionary explanation as reductionist and incomplete. 

Most evolutionary explanations are post-hoc therefore difficult to scientifically prove or disprove. Therefore evolutionary theories remain speculative and therefore difficult to determine their actual influence. Such theories are reductionist as they reduce behaviour to a single explanation and down to adaptive fitness. It ignores other explanations e.g. psychological explanations and parasocial relationships. This is deterministic as behaviour is seen to be driven by biological factors with no consideration for the role of free will or conscious thought. Also not everyone finds celebrities interesting and attractive which this explanation cannot account for, further highlighting that a purely evolutionary explanation is unable to explain our attraction to celebrities. 

Social-psychological explanations for attraction of celebrity (8+16)

Celebrities are attractive due to their popularity, wealth and glamour therefore fans aspire to be like them. Therefore celebrity attraction can be explained through Social Learning theory (SLT). This proposes learning effects occur with celebrities acting as role model for us to observe and imitate their behaviour in the belief it will bring similar levels of attractiveness and success. 

Parasocial relationships provide another explanation. These form outside a person's normal network of friends with the celebrity normally unaware of the person who has created this parasocial relationship. These relationships may be appealing to fans as they are low demand and people do not have the risk of criticism or rejection. Other explanations suggest frequent and repeated exposure to a celebrity causes them to become attractive and we find them comforting and trustworthy over time. 

The Absorption-Addiction model suggests admiration can lead some to resort to more extreme behaviours to maintain satisfaction with their parasocial relationship. Giles et al identified 3 levels in this process: entertainment social; fans are attracted to celebrities because of their perceived ability to entertain us. Intense personal; this aspect reflects intensive and compulsive feelings about the celebrity. Borderline pathological; this is characterised by uncontrollable behaviours towards the celebrities.

Schippa et al found those who saw a celebrity as attractive and similar to themselves, were most likely to form parasocial relationships. Additionally, the celebrity had to appear real or believable to allow viewers to compare themselves to them in similar ways. This supports the idea of parasocial relationships forming and causing celebrity attraction as we are most likely to form normal relationships with those similar to us, therefore it is likely to be the same with celebrities. These findings were based on a meta-analysis which has the strength of using several studies as support for conclusions. Therefore may increase the reliability and validity of conclusions. However, it relies on the reliability of other research studies. Therefore this must be considered before we draw firm conclusive as to how parasocial relationships form and cause celebrity attraction. 

Cole and Leets found those with anxious ambivalent attachments were most susceptible to developing parasocial relationships with celebrities. This attachment type is characterised by individuals concern that others will not return their desire for intimacy. Therefore they use celebrities to satisfy their need for closeness. Those with avoidant-attachment types were least likely to develop real life or parasocial relationships as they find intimate relationships difficult. This provides strength for the parasocial relationship explanation as individual differences are considered giving reliability to results as an individuals attachment type is expected to generalise across all relationships. Therefore is expected to reflect onto any parasocial relationships too. 

Research may oversimplify social process which is an issue regarding a social psychological explanation. Individuals are not attracted to every celebrity similar to themselves and their is no single personal types that engages in celebrity admiration more so than another. Not all motivational processes are considered therefore this is a deterministic approach, as some may engage in following of celebrities through free will and choice

There are problems which can occur as a result of celebrity obsession for example individuals undertaking social comparison with celebrities, which is encouraged by the media e.g. such as materialism where people believe and pursue the idea that happiness can only be achieved through fame and fortune. Such pursuits may prevent people from achieving actual personal growth and happiness. Another problem is media portrays celebrities with perfect bodies and appearances. This may cause impressionable young people to try and copy such appearances. Seen to be encourages by the media through celebrity diets, which may lead to eating disorders. 

Biological factors are also ignored, therefore creating a reductionist approach in determining attraction to celebrities, where a combination of both psychological and evolutionary explanations may be better suited. For example repeated exposure may cause celebrities to seem comforting and trustworthy. This may have had previous adaptive value highlighting an interaction of elements that may have caused attraction.

Explanations for the persuasiveness of television advertising (8+16)

The elaboration-likelihood model in media persuasion (8+16)

Petty et al suggested two different routes to persuasion; the central route to persuasion is appropriate of the audience focuses on the message and the peripheral route if the audience focuses on the context of the message. 

Need for cognition (NC) determines the route taken. Some individuals enjoy thinking about the information they receive and analyse problems and thus have a high NC; individuals like this are likely to take the central route to persuasion. In contrast, those with low NC rely on opinions of credible others and the context of the message to make a decision and therefore are more likely to take the peripheral route. 

Attitudes changes through the central route are longer lasting and less susceptible to subsequent attempts to change them, than those conducted through the peripheral route. It is suggested most human beings are cognitive misers, relying on simple and time efficient strategies when making decisions. 

Haugtvedt et al found that attitude change in high NC individuals was based more on the attribute of the product in an advert, while for low NC individuals, simple peripheral cues were more important in shaping attitudes. This supports the claim that the central route of persuasion is more effective for high NC individuals. However, this was a laboratory study advertising a fictional brand therefore results may not reflect that of what would occur in real life therefore may also lack external validity. In real life brand familiarity would play a role in persuasion as studies suggest repeated exposure can lead to a more positive view. This would likely interact with NC to determine whether the individual is persuaded. 

Milani et al found computer mediated communication (CMC) was more likely to activate the central route of persuasion therefore results in fewer opinion changes than face to face interaction. Individuals would be less likely to change their view through CMC as they would be more likely to think deeply about the information rather than being swayed by emotion which could occur in a face for face condition. However, this study only involved the use of one group of students therefore lacks external validity and may not generalise to other situations. 

Strength of the model includes it focuses on the internal processes of attitude change which is important in the understanding of how attitudes are formed and changed at a cognitive level. This model is suggested to be more realistic than the Hovland-Yale model of persuasion as it suggests there are tow routes to persuasion not just one solitary route. There is also emphasis on the importance of the context of the information, e.g. communicator or importance of the message, which likely plays a key role in persuasion.

However, the model can be argued to be oversimplified only containing two processing systems. Use of a continuum may be more realistic as it is likely an individual will use several types of processing when forming attitudes. Also it is not clear how the central and peripheral routes interact meaning it may be difficult to determine which system will be used. 

The application of the Hovland-Yale model in media persuasion (8+16)

This model suggests persuasive communication has 3 elements; the source: person giving the message needs to be credible and attractive, the message: in some situations a repetitive message which appeals to people's fears is the most effective, and audience factors such as the audience's self esteem can be important in terms of the effectiveness of a communication.

Hovland's team identified 3 factors that influenced persuasion; source factors suggest credible experts are more likely to persuade than non-experts. If a non-expert presents an extreme view audiences will likely resist and look to discredit the source. Popular attractive sources are more persuasive then non-attractive sources e.g. Bono has become a well known spokesperson for the plight of African Nations.

Message factors suggest we must understand a message to be persuaded and we are more likely to be persuaded by messages that we think are not trying to persuade us. Also low and high fear messages are not as effective as moderate fear messages. Low levels of fear do not motivate, while high fear can create too much fear preventing the message from being processed properly. Humour also appears to result in long term attitude change and persuasion. Whereas moderate fear level messages result in more short term changes.

Audience factors suggest high intelligence audience are less likely to be persuaded than low intelligence audiences, as they will likely be confident in their own beliefs making them harder to persuade. Audiences with higher involvement in a topic will typically react differently to audiences with low involvement when exposed to a persuasive message. Young children are also more easily persuaded as they do not understand the persuasive intentions of the messages. 

Igartua et al found inserting messages in an entertainment context induced cognitive processing to achieve a more favourable attitude about the messages e.g. using fictional short stories to illustrate HIV/AIDS prevention. Results found the better quality fictional story, the more favourable attitude towards prevention was achieved, highlighting audience and message factors interact. Through entertaining messages the audience members became involved in an issue that they previously may have had no involvement suggesting the limitations of audience factors can be overcome if the nature of the message is changed accordingly. A methodological issue is self-report was used. The level of agreement rated may have been subjective to that day therefore results may lack validity.

Lewis et al found fear-arousing messages to be effective short term, straight after exposure in a drink driving campaign. However, if a positive humorous campaign was shown this was more effective in producing long term attitude change. Pre-exposure attitudes and attitude immediately after exposure were assessed using questionnaires therefore raises issues of demand characteristics and social desirability. Participants may have answered in a pro-social way against drink driving as they felt that is what was expected of them. Also because they felt campaigning against drink driving is more socially acceptable than ignoring the issue. 

Real world application of the model includes use of designing of media campaigns as entertaining campaigns are suggested to have a longer lasting effect. This could be used positively to help create more successful campaigns to create longer lasting opinion and behaviour changes regarding dangerous lifestyle choices. 

However,the model cannot explain how persuasion actually happens it simply concentrates on the steps needed for the persuasion process. It also assumes that attitude change occurs from the understanding of a message, but simply understanding a message does not always lead to persuasion and vice versa. The elaboration likelihood model explains persuasion can take place without full understanding of a message.

The Hovland-Yale model is argued to be over simplified as it only suggests there is one route to persuasion when it is likely persuasion involves more complex interaction from several components, it is too reductionist. Therefore the elaboration likelihood model may be more realistic in explaining media persuasion as it suggests there are two routes of persuasion suggesting a more complex system than the Hovland-Yale model.

Effects of video games and computers (8+16)

Video games have been found to have positive effects in encouraging helping behaviour, increasing social communication and understanding, also in providing therapeutic effects. Multi-player games that involve other players increase socialisation. Kahne et al found that the majority of those who played The Sims also described learning about the problems in society and learning about social issues while playing. 

Lenhart et al found those who played Halo or The Sims were more committed to civic participation. Also those who engaged in social discussions e.g. online forums, were more civically and politically committed. Suggesting video games and computer used can promote such behaviour which is beneficial for society. Surveys were used which lack control it may be those with civic participation interests chose games which fit in with this established interest and it may not have been the game encouraging behaviour. This is correlational data which limits our ability to draw cause and effect of how video games influence the development of pro-social behaviour. However, this was a large scale survey therefore results may be reliable. 

Gonzales et al argued that Facebook wall have positive influences on our self-esteem as they tend to be overwhelmingly positive. In a study where participants either had to look at their Facebook wall or a mirror, those who looked at their wall rated themselves more positivity than the other group. A methodological issue is that self-report measures were used and participants reported on how they felt. This may not have been a reliable measure as it is subjective to their feelings that day and other extraneous variables may have influenced feelings of self-esteem. These are not considered therefore results may lack internal validity and reliability. 

Video games have been successfully used in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder, helping individuals relieve psychological trauma in a low threat environment. Games such as Tetris have been found to limit the minds tendency to flashback to traumatic events. As, it is thought these games use the same sensory channels.

Video games have been found to have potential negative effects with some studies finding increased physiological arousal, hostile feelings and aggressive behaviour. Other studies have found players to be more verbally and physically aggressive while some meta-analysis suggests a consistent link between violent game play and aggressive behaviour. Experimental studies by Stone et al found short term increases in physiological arousal and hostile and aggressive behaviour following sessions of violent game play compared to sessions of non-violent game play. 

Gentile and Anderson found as video games have become more violent the level of aggression shown by both adults and children has increased. However, research has not found a definitive link. Gentile et al proposed a bi-directional model where although violent video games may increase aggressive behaviour, it is just as likely that those who have aggressive personality traits will orientate themselves towards them. Aggressive behaviour cannot be studied directly to ethical grounds therefore other form of behaviour are used e.g. participants blasting opponents with white noise. This is not representative of real life violence therefore the study lacks external validity as results may not generalise to real life. The role of personality and biology is not considered as an influence of the behaviour copied from video games, therefore the study is reductionist. 

Karpinski et al found the majority of university students that used Facebook everyday underachieved by up to an entire grade compared to those who did not use the site. Facebook users were found to spend 1-5 hours a week studying, while non-users spent 11-15 hours a week studying. This highlights negative effects of computer use suggesting too much can effect negatively of education. Karpinski acknowledges this may not directly link to excessive Facebook use and lower grades, but there is a clear link between the two. Personality factors may be involved and perhaps Facebook users were more prone to distraction regardless of computer use.

Media influences on anti-social behaviour (8+16)

Bandura's social learning theory (SLT) suggests children learn aggressive behaviour either through direct experience or vicarious experience. Children observe the actions of media models and later may imitate these behaviours. Media can portray positive or negative consequences of anti-social behaviour. If the model gains their objective, children will be more likely to copy the behaviour believing they will gain reward themselves. The more realistic the televised scenes appear to the child the more likely they will repeat the behaviour. 

Cognitive priming is the activation of existing aggressive thoughts and feelings, and explains why children observe one behaviour of TV and commit another. After viewing violence the viewer is primed to respond in an anti-social way. 

Desentisitation explain that normally an individuals anxiety towards violence inhibits its use. Those who are not used to watching media violence are likely yo be shocked when witnessing real life violence. However, those who frequently expose themselves to media violence will likely become 'desenitised'. Therefore exposure to media violence generalises to real world settings causing less anxiety making violent acts easier to commit. 

Phillips found a correlation between crime statistics over the 10 days following a televised boxing match. A rise in the number of murders was found, but no such rise occurred after televised super bowl matches. This provides support for observational SLT suggesting a positive correlation between observing violence on TV and increased anti-social behaviour. An issue that occurred within Bandura's theory and bobo doll study was it was suggested SLT may not generalise to adults. However, this study suggests observational learning and SLT applies to adults, increasing SLT's validity and generalisations across age groups. However, correlational data cannot establish cause and effect and other variables may play a role in leading to increased aggression. There is also no way of knowing whether those who committed the murders watcher the boxing match. Other confounding variables that are unaccounted for may have caused the increased anti-social behaviour. 

Drabman et al observed children viewing violent films and found children showed less emotional response suggesting desensitisation giving the theory validity. Those who are desensitised are more likely to see anti-social behaviour as normal therefore are more likely to engage in it. Males may expose themselves to more violence e.g. in media and sport, therefore more likely to become desensitised, supported by UK crime statistics which have found men more likely to engage in violence than women. Ethical concerns are raised as children were exposed to violent films which could have been distressing or caused further desensitisation. The study was conducted in laboratory conditions therefore lacks external validity and cannot provide conclusive evidence that media desensitisation links to real world desensitisation.

St. Helena, a British colony, had TV introduced for the first time and its effects were observed. No significant rise was found in anti-social behaviour after its introduction suggesting TV has little effect in general. However, it is unclear what the long term effects may be as the children were not used to TV therefore may not have found it interesting. A methodological problem is assuming the impact of TV would be direct, a long term observation would have been better suited. If changes did occur later in life it may be due to other extraneous variables, highlighting the difficulty in measuring effects of the media. 

A methodological weakness in media research is most studies are conducted in laboratory settings. Under these conditions participants may show demand characteristics as they are aware they are being observed, and lacks ecological validity as they are not representative of a real life setting. However, research may have real life application for example the 9pm watershed, this helps to limit anti-social behaviour seen by children as research has found evidence it may influence behaviour. 

Media influences of pro-social behaviour (8+16)

Social learning theory, parental mediation and developmental factors can be used to explain influences of media on pro-social behaviour. Bandura's social learning theory (SLT) suggests that children learn by observing behaviour and them imitating it, if the expectation of reward is greater than one of punishment. This process occurs with behaviour seen in the media. The depiction of pro-social acts, e.g. sharing, will likely be in accordance with already established norms therefore will be reinforces and become internalised. Children are more likely to be rewarded for pro-social act e.g. through praise and attention which then further encourages behaviour.

Parental mediation can be used to increase chances of behaviour being repeated through explaining abstract concepts. Although a large number of children watch television on their own, watching with the presence of a parent and discussing any ambiguous or disturbing messages and following up the concepts presented in the programme can increase the chance of the behaviour being internalised.

Research suggests that skills linked with pro-social behaviour develop throughout childhood and adolescence. Therefore developmental differences are expected in the degree in which media influences children at different ages. 

Mares et al stated pro-social behaviour is only likely to be learnt if the child is shown the exact steps for the behaviour. This may be because children find it difficult to interpret abstract pro-social act. Therefore the exact influence the media has is difficult to determine. As, often the exact steps of pro-social behaviour are not shown in the media.

Poulous et al found when young children were shown an episode of Lassie involving a child rescuing a dog, they were then more likely yo help distressed puppies, than those who watched a neutral TV programme. Children were shown the altruistic behaviour of helping a dog therefore directly imitated this behaviour suggesting pro-social behaviour is more likely to occur when the exact steps are shown. However, this study was conducted in a laboratory therefore lacks external validity. In the study the children would have known they had to pay attention to the video. Whereas in real life they may not have been as attentive therefore reducing generalisations. Also the study suffers age bias and can only explain how this age group has their behaviour affected by the media. 

Rice et al found parental mediation enhanced the learning affects of Sesame Street, which  was originally launched with pro-social aims. Children from higher socio-economic backgrounds appeared to benefit the most. Possibly due to their parents having more time to watch TV and discuss messages with their children. Those who watched without parental mediation did not internalise the messages therefore were less likely yo repeat the behaviour. Highlighting the importance of mediation in learning behaviour from the media. Issues occur in measuring pro-social behaviour as it relies on self-report of the parents which may not be truthful. Also only short term effects can be measured. It may not influence later life. 

Rosenkoetter suggested with parental mediation children as young as seven could understand complex moral messages contained in adult sitcoms. Parents also reported children as more helpful. A positive correlation was found between these two variables. Children who watched more pro-social sitcoms showed higher levels of altruistic behaviour supporting the idea of pro-social media leading to pro-social behaviour. However, this was correlational therefore cause and effect cannot be determined, all extraneous variables were not controlled. For example the children who were already more pro-socially inclines may have then went on to watch more sitcoms as they fitted in with existing beliefs and attitudes. 

Other research findings suggest exposure to filmed models has less of an affect than exposure to real life models. Children may understand what they are seeing but do not apply it to real life settings. Therefore determining how much of an effect pro-social media has is difficult.