Outline and evaluate psychological therapies for schizophrenia (8+16)

Family therapy has been developed due to the possibility that schizophrenia is caused by family problems such as double-blind situations and expressed emotion (EE). This also aims to reduce relapse rates in patients with schizophrenia through contact with high EE family. Therapy aims to change aspects of he patient-relative relationship. It involves educating family about schizophrenia and teaching methods of coping, problem solving and family communication. 

Social Skill Training helps with aspects of daily life. Symptoms may be controlled by medication but an individual may still struggle to form friendships, find or keep a job or live independently. This training helps the patient acquire the skills they need to function better on a day to day basis e.g. employment, relationships, self-care and managing medication. 

CBT works by modifying delusional beliefs and hallucinations within sufferers. These may occur due to incorrect interpretations of the world around them, themselves, maladaptive thinking or disorder perceptions. The aim of CBT is to help the patient identify these 'faulty' and disorder belied and address them. Patients are taught to recognise signs of potential relapse before they build up into schizophrenic symptoms again. 

Left et al researched the effectiveness of treating high EE families. 10 patients were given a 2 year programme of family therapy and 9 were used as controls. 17% of the experimental groups that also took medication relapsed, 78% with medication alone and 83% relapses with no treatment. Therefore this suggests that family is effective in preventing relapse with no treatment. Therefore this suggests that family therapy is effective in preventing relapse. Reliability issues occur due to the problem of the lack of a consistent diagnosis for schizophrenia. Also family therapies may have only been used with those with mild schizophrenic symptoms. Different schizophrenics may have different results. Therefore results may be determines by how sever the initial symptoms were. 

Family therapy has only once been seen to be more effective in preventing relapse and not in preventing the onset of the illness. Therefore this is a major weakness for its treatment. Another issue is there is little research into family therapies long term effectiveness of the treatment. Improvement has only been seen short term therefore this may not be appropriate as a long term solution.

McGorry et al found CBT was effective with patients at risk of having a schizophrenic episode receiving different treatments. After 6 months 36% of patients receiving psychotherapy developed schizophrenia, with only 10% of those receiving CBT and drug therapy developed the disorder. This supports the use of CBT as an effective form of treatment. However, it is questionable whether CBT is appropriate as the lower risk of relapse could be due to the drugs rather than the CBT itself. Therefore the drug therapy may have been a confounding variable with CBT having potentially little to no effect. The CBT would be argued to help mask the disorder, through teaching functional behaviour. Therefore the underlying cause may remain. 

CBT suffers reductionism as it ignore individual differences and suggests all develop schizophrenia in the same way. It oversimplifies schizophrenia to cognitive thought processes when evidence strongly suggests a biological origin, which is ignored. CBT may only be effective with those who have milder forms of the disorder as an insight and awareness is needed to address problems. Those with severe schizophrenic symptoms may lack this. Appropriateness of CBT must be considered; if it only masks symptoms this raises ethical issues as patients may be encouraged to hide symptoms causing patients to be denied potentially more beneficial treatment. For example if schizophrenia has a biological cause drug therapies would be more appropriate. Therefore suggests CBT as an inappropriate treatment for some individuals.

Overall issues regarding psychological treatments are compared to anti-psychotic treatment, they appear to be less effective. Such therapies are also reductionist in ignoring biological influences which clearly play a role in schizophrenia. Due to this purely psychological therapies may be unlikely to provide long term benefits. 

Outline and evaluate biological therapies for schizophrenia (8+16)

The most frequent treatment for schizophrenia is use of anti-psychotic drugs. Conventional anti-psychotics such as Chlorpromazines were introduced in the 1950s. These are dopamine antagonists and work by blocking dopamine production through the D2 receptors in synapses that absorb dopamine therefore reducing positive symptoms such as hallucinations which are though to be caused by over-stimulation of the brain by dopamine. 

Anti-psychotics can be divided into first generational (typical) and second generation (atypical) varieties. Atypical anti-psychotics work by reducing serotonin activity in the brain. They then act on dopamine receptors leading the patient to show fewer side effects. 

Davis et al conducted a meta-analysis and found that over 70% of sufferers treated with anti-psychotics improved their conditions after 6 weeks. This suggests anti-psychotics were beneficial. However, 25% of sufferers also improved on placebo alone. Also 30% of those taking anti-psychotics did not improve. This suggests that effectiveness of drug therapies can vary between individuals therefore such differences must be taken into account when considering the appropriateness of treatment. The meta-analysis used over 100 studies therefore has high external validity and generalisations will be able to be made more accurately. Issues include demand characteristics may have affected whether treatment was successfully as some patients may have been more motivated and convinced the therapy would work. Therefore regardless of whether anti-psychotics or placebo was taken they would have had reduced symptoms. 

Double-blind trials contradict Davis' findings suggesting the overall effectiveness of anti-psychotics is argued to be around 60%. Such trails are used to objectively test and to reduce demand characteristics with research helping to increase reliability. However, such research highlights issues regarding determining the effectiveness of drugs, as results vary. Double-blind trials may only be reliable as a short term measure for the effectiveness of drug therapies. 

Drug therapies in the use of schizophrenia have had the major advantage of allowing suffers to lead normal lives where previously they may have been institutionalised for unmanageable symptoms. However, limitations occur for example not all patients responded to anti-psychotics, with around 40% being unresponsive. Both conventional and atypical anti-psychotics can produce negative side effects with conventional drugs being linked to Tardive Dyskinesia, a loss of muscle control, being irreversible in 75% of cases (Hill et al). Side effects raises problems of compliance and patients may stop taking them therefore causing schizophrenic symptoms to return or increase. 

ECT has previously been used in treatment although today is highly controversial. ECT uses electric currents to induce a seizure in the brain. This has been seen to reduce schizophrenic symptoms in some but it is not understood as to how this works. The appropriateness of ECT has been questioned as in studies comparing ECT and simulated ECT found little difference in effectiveness. Also due to the uncertainly of effectiveness and ethical issues surrounding treatment, today it is not used in the treatment of schizophrenia as there is not sufficient research support for its effectiveness according to for example NICE (National Institute for Health Care and Excellence).

Biological therapies are deterministic as patients are reinforced to believe that they have less control over their disorder and that their behaviours are dictated by their biology. Also biological treatment can only treat symptoms of schizophrenia therefore once the patient stops taking medication symptoms will likely return. Often anti-psychotics are combined with other therapies e.g. CBT as from research one has not been found to offer a complete cure. Such treatments are also reductions in assuming schizophrenia is caused solely by biological causes. But, other research suggests psychological factors and environmental factors also play a role in onset and maintenance.

It has been argued medical professionals prescribe pills in the best interest in the companies producing the medication. This creates ethical concerns as they are not working in the interest of the patient. Therefore such issues highlight many factors that the patients must consider before engaging in biological treatments. However, when they work are proven to be very beneficial. 

Outline and evaluate psychological explanations of schizophrenia (8+16)

One explanation for schizophrenia developing is due to the upbringing within schizophrenic families. The double blind hypothesis suggests schizophrenia is a consequence of abnormal patterns in family communication e.g. given mutually contradictory signals by another person, causes internal conflict and schizophrenic symptoms represent an attempt to escape for the double blind.

Expressed emotion (EE) has been linked to the maintenance of schizophrenia. This refers to the families that are constantly showing high levels of emotion such as hostility, criticism, over involvement and over concern. Schizophrenic patients returning the high EE homes were more like to relapse than those in low EE homes.

Cognitive explanations such as that proposed by Frith suggest that schizophrenic are unable to form a correct ‘meta-representation’ of reality. This occurs as different areas of the brain do not function together effectively causing faulty thinking processes. This causes disordered thoughts and hallucinations therefore suggesting the schizophrenic characteristics are a cause rather than a symptom.

Helmsley proposed failure to activate schemas an explanation. This is a breakdown between stored memories and new information. Since schemas are used to interpret the world when a breakdown occurs it effects schizophrenics’ ability to do this. Therefore they cannot breakdown information, causing sensory overload, resulting in delusional thoughts.

Vaughn et al investigated express emotion in families of hospitalised schizophrenics. A 51% relapse in high EE homes was found and a 13% relapse in low EE homes. They also found relapse rates increased with more contact with high EE relatives therefore supports the EE explanation. However, only half of patients relapsed when returning to high EE homes suggesting this may not be a complete explanation. Further problems occur as the EE theory suggest those in low EE homes should not have relapsed. Such as explanation is reductionist as they only consider the role of family members in relapse rates, when any social involvement, not just family members, could be considered high or low EE. Methodological problems are raised for example interviews were used to determine whether a family is low or high EE. This is subjective to the researcher’s interpretations therefore is not a reliable measure. Also extraneous variables could not be controlled therefore we cannot determine how much influence high EE families truly have in increasing relapse in patients.

Family based psychological explanations provides a nurture side to the nature/nurture debate. Such studies help us to gain a better understanding of innate predispositions that may bring about schizophrenic symptoms.

Weinberger et al found that the blood flow to the prefrontal cortex, during a card sort test, was different for those suffering schizophrenia. This led to the conclusions that schizophrenia was associated with poorly functioning cognitive activity. Such methods of testing are objective as they measure blood flow therefore in that sense are reliable. However, such studies only provide a correlational link with no proof that this difference in blood flow causes different cognitive processes which link to schizophrenia. There is also a lack of control of extraneous variables which may contribute as brain mechanisms are still not well understood. Such cognitive explanations have been criticised for being deterministic in suggesting we do not control our cognitive processes. It has been argued that consciousness and free will operate at different levels therefore a cognitive explanation is limited if it does not take free will into account.

Both Vaughn and Weinberger’s studies provide evidence that schizophrenia may have a psychological influence to some extent. However, generally a biological approach is more accepted. Cultural influence is ignored in both studies raising generalisation issues. Culture may influence onset as it has been found EE is less common out of western cultures. This may be due to non-western cultures being less committed to concepts of personal responsibility than western societies. Therefore they are less likely to blame someone with schizophrenia for their actions. However, purely psychological explanations are reductionist and ignore the role of biological influences which others suggest have more of an influence.

Outline and evaluate biological explanations of schizophrenia (8+16)

It is thought that genetic factors play a role in schizophrenia. However, research has failed to identify one or a small number of genes that are responsible for the disorder. Therefore the 'polygenic threshold model' has been suggested. This assumes that a genetic influence comes from an accumulation of small effects from a larger range of genes. 

Current research from twin, adoption and family studies suggest that genetic influence is not enough to account for the rate of those who are genetically related to develop schizophrenia. This led to the conclusion that environmental factors also contribute to schizophrenia onset. 

The Dopamine-Hypothesis states that the neurons transmitting dopamine fire too easily and too often leading to characteristic symptoms of schizophrenia. Schizophrenics are thought to have abnormally high levels of D2 receptors on receiving neurons resulting in more dopamine binding and thus more neurons firing. Dopamine plays a role in attention therefore disturbances in this process may lead to problems related to attention, perception and thoughts which are found in schizophrenics.

Joseph analysed data of schizophrenic twins finding a concordance rate of MZ twins of 40.4% and for DZ twins 7.4%. More recent methodologically sound studies e.g. 'blind' diagnosis, where the research does not know whether they are testing MZ or DZ twins, reported lower concordance rates for MZ twins. Despite this researchers still argue findings suggest a genetic link and MZ concordance is often higher than DZ concordance rates. Such research studies are inconclusive as to the exact degree of influence genetics has in determining likeliness of developing schizophrenia. It is likely other factors influence whether schizophrenia is developed when there is a biological predisposition. 

An issue with twin studies is they assume that MZ ans DZ twins share the same environments. However, Joseph et al highlighted that identical twins are more likely to be treated similarly and may be seen as one person, therefore share similar environments. This could explain the higher concordance rates with MZ twins due to environmental factors rather than genes alone. Also MZ twins share 100% of genes, the concordance rate remains at 40% and not 100% suggesting the environment still plays a mitigating role in schizophrenia onset. 

The diasthesis-stress model may apply here with both nature (genes) and nurture (environment) interacting. Schizophrenia onset may be caused by having a genetic vulnerability as well as being exposed to certain environmental triggers. This theory can be applied to help individuals with a genetic predisposition to avoid situations that may cause schizophrenic symptoms to show.

Cross et al found in post-mortem examinations comparing schizophrenics and a control group, found that a higher level of D2 receptors were found among schizophrenics, providing evidence to support the dopamine hypothesis. Other post mortem studies had concluded it was the drug treatments that the schizophrenics had been taking which caused this. However, Cross et al reported that these schizophrenics had not been taking drug treatment at the time of death, so contradicting other such studies that suggest anti-psychotics caused changed in the brain's response to dopamine. 

Both Joseph and Cross' studies support a biological explanation, with study support for genetics remaining greater than that of the dopamine hypothesis, however neither are conclusive. Both genetic and neurochemical explanations have been criticised for being reductions as the ignore the role of free will and suggests all human being are driven by biological impulses that are beyond our control, which is untrue.

The nature/nurture debate suggests that out innate biological makeup gives us a predisposition to develop schizophrenic tendencies, but it is nature which is important in creating the circumstance for these behaviours to show. Therefore a consideration of both biological and psychological factors may be the most accurate explanation of how schizophrenia is developed. 

Discuss issues associated with the classification and/or diagnosis of schizophrenia

Reliability is the extent to which psychiatrist can agree on the same diagnosis when independently assessing patients. Some parts of the world use the DSM and others may use the ICD to diagnosis schizophrenia. Issues of reliability occur as the DSM and ICD have different diagnostic criteria. Also the classification criteria changes over time for example the DSM-5 has dropped some sub-categorises of schizophrenia suggesting previous error. Diagnosis may also suffer cultural bias as in one country may diagnosis someone as normal and in another as schizophrenic. Therefore diagnosis is dependent on which identification tool is used and where in the world the individual is highlighting how inconsistent diagnosis actually is. 

This raises issues of validity demonstrating that schizophrenia is not understood well enough to make diagnosis accurately. Validity, in this case, is the extent a diagnosis claims to accurately diagnose schizophrenia. Invalid diagnosis raises ethical issues for example being labelled as schizophrenic could affect other areas of life such as employment or how others perceive the individual. Diagnosis relies on patients reporting symptoms therefore makes an objective diagnosis difficult. 

Copeland et al highlighted cultural differences in diagnosis and how it can vary between countries. They gave a description of a patient to US and British psychiatrists; 69% of US diagnosed with schizophrenia, while only 2% of British made this diagnosis. Therefore, differences exist in what people expect symptoms to look like and highlights further issues is diagnosis. As, behaviour in one country could be seen as relatively normal but in another could be symptoms of schizophrenia. This study highlights that some clinician may be inclined to offer a certain diagnosis possibly due to them 'liking' a certain disorder. 

Rosanhan found when healthy individuals presented themselves to psychiatric hospitals in the US, claiming to hear voices they were all admitted, being diagnosed as schizophrenic. This highlights an issue of the lack of expertise in make a valid diagnosis. Additionally, in a follow up study Rosanhan warned hospitals he would be sending 'fake patients' this resulted in a 21% detection rate despite no fake patients ever being sent. This further highlights how diagnosis methods can be unreliable meaning current understanding of schizophrenia is insufficient and lacks validity. 

Ellason and Ross stated people with Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) had more schizophrenic symptoms than schizophrenics themselves. This raises issues of comordability as symptoms may appear schizophrenia but it may be due to a combination of other illness resembling it, making reliable diagnosis and treatment difficult. If we do not accurately know what schizophrenia is, we cannot treat it sufficiently. People diagnosed with schizophrenia rarely share the same symptoms, and there is little evidence they share the same outcomes. Therefore even with an accurate diagnosis it is still difficult to recommend a suitable treatment for the individual. 

Diagnosis can lead to positive outcomes for example it presents the patient with the opportunity to receive treatment which would not have been available if undiagnosed. It may also help raise the patients self-efficacy through dispelling any feeling of guilt regarding their behaviour as schizophrenia can be offered as an explanation. However, negative implications can arise from diagnosis such as the risk of misdiagnosis which raises serious ethical issues as it could prevent sufferers from gaining the most beneficial treatment. A diagnosis may also lead individuals to believe that they have little or no control in directing their lived which could affect feeling of self-esteem or self-worth. This may then lead to stigmatising form others further worsening the individuals symptoms. 

Tools such as the DSM are often used for diagnosis however these can be seen as reductionist as they reduce down a complex disorder to a few symptoms which cannot be operationalised effectively. This highlights the importance of the physician to understand the patient and their own interpretations of their symptoms to make the most beneficial and appropriate diagnosis. 

Outline the clinical characteristics of schizophrenia (8)

Schizophrenia is a disorder characterised by the individual losing touch with reality. Under the DSM-5 diagnosis of schizophrenia requires two or more identified symptoms to be present for a one month period to be diagnosed.

Positive symptoms that occur in excess of normal functions such as delusions which are bizarre beliefs that are not real, including inflated beliefs about ones own power and importance. Experience of control; include the individual believes they are being controlled by an external force such as God, aliens or spirits that have invaded their mind. Hallucinations; include bizarre unreal perceptions of the environment e.g. hearing voices. Disordered thinking; is thoughts being inserted or withdrawn from ones mind. In some cases a person may think their thoughts are being broadcast to others. 

Negative symptoms are those that reflect a diminution or loss of normal functions including affective flattening; a reduced range and intensity in expressing emotions e.g. facial expressions and tone of voice. Alogia is speech that is not fluent or productive with sparse relies or there is a lack of speech. This is believed to show a blocked or slowed down thought process. Avolition is 'poverty of will' or a lack of drive or motivation to pursue meaningful goals or socialise. The person may be confused and show disinterest. 

In addition to this one of the symptoms must be delusions, hallucinations or disordered speech which must persist for 6 months for a diagnosis. 

Outline and evaluate research into celebrity stalking (8+16)

Stalking is define as 'the wilful, malicious and repeated following or harassment of another person threatening his or her safety', with celebrity stalking constituting for about 1% of stalking cases. 

Two types of stalking have been identified; love obsession and simple obsessional stalking. Love obsession is a fixation with another person (such as a celebrity) which they have no personal connection with. Stalkers of this type suffer from delusional thought patterns and may suffer a mental disorder such as schizophrenia. Most are unable to create real relationships therefore create fictitious ones which they try to act out in real life. The second type, simple obsessional stalking, is more common and distinguished by some previous personal relationship having existed between the stalker and the victim before the stalking behaviour began. 

The two main explanations for stalking are personality theory and attachment theory. Personality theory suggests stalking is an extreme form of celebrity worship by those who score highly in the borderline-pathological dimensions of the CAS (celebrity attitude scale). Attachment theory proposes that celebrity stalking may be an extreme manifestation of the insecure attachment type. 

Bartholomew and Horowitz proposed a model of adult attachment styles. One of these is 'pre-occupied' and has been linked to celebrity stalking. Individuals with this type of attachment have a negative self-model and a positive other-model. Therefore the individual seeks validation from others. Meloy claims that celebrity stalking could be indicative of abnormal attachments. Individuals with this attachment may engage in celebrity stalking because they over value others and perceive contact with celebrities will indicate they are accepted and valued, thus challenging their negative views on themselves. 

Tonin found a significant number of stalkers were found to have insecure attachments compared to a control group. Therefore this supports the theory that certain attachment types can lead to increased likelihood of stalking. However, self-report measures were used to measure attachment type through the use of questionnaires. This may lack reliability as they are often subjective to how the individual was feeling that day therefore their assessed attachment type may not be accurate. Additionally, questionnaires were used to assess the stalkers' retrospective childhood attachment styles. Such measures require the individual to answer questionnaires about their childhood which they may not remember leading them to guess answers to questions further hindering reliability and validity in determining their attachment type. Therefore firm conclusions cannot be drawn between attachment and susceptibility of stalking. 

Maltby et al claimed that the tendency to engage in stalking behaviour may actually be indicative of underlying psychopathology. They found scores of OCD correlated with measures of the CAS intense-personal and borderline-pathological. Stalkers sometimes behave irrationally toward their victims, which may reflect underlying psychopathology. However, this is correlational data and cause and effect cannot be determined. Not everyone with OCD develops stalking behaviour and not all stalkers will have OCD tendencies, therefore to assume this is reductionist. Additionally, this explanation is deterministic and ignores the role of free will humans have in behaviour. Individuals have the capability to control whether they stalk someone however this is ignored in research. 

Research into stalking has real world applications for example the creation of anti-stalking legislation. In the UK and US there are anti-stalking laws. The issue with these laws is that there are still basic rights of freedom and fans are encouraged to be adoring. It may become difficult to assess when fans behaviour becomes stalking. Therefore this highlights the importance of research into stalking as it aids in determining what factors make an individual most likely to display stalking behaviour, helping to protect celebrities. 

However, such research evidence may be socially sensitive as it may lead to stigmatising against or observation of those with such traits or personality types. Even though it is not certain that they will develop stalking behaviour. 

Outline and evaluate research into celebrity worship (8+16)

Most research into celebrity worship has used the Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS), a 17 item scale, with lower scores indicating more individualistic behaviour e.g. reading about celebrities and higher scores indicating over-identification and obsession with celebrities. Maltby et al used this scale to produce 3 levels of parasocial relationships; entertainment social, intense-personal and borderline-pathological.

Within the entertainment social stage fans are attracted to a favourite celebrity because of their entertainment and social value. The intense-personal stage reflects intensive and compulsive feelings for the celebrity. The borderline-pathological stage is define by uncontrollable behaviour and fantasies about the celebrity. 

Celebrity worship may be more common than people think. Maltby found one third of a student sample scored above the midpoints in the three subscales of the CAS. In a later study a sample of 372 people aged 18-47, 15% were at the entertainment-social level, 5% the intense personal level and less than 2% were considered borderline-pathological. 

Maltby concluded celebrity worshippers have lower psychological well-being than non-worshippers. It is suggested celebrity worshipper may not have rewarding social relationships therefore make parasocial relationships with celebrities to satisfy their need for interaction. Further studies have suggested that while the entertainment-social subscale predicts social dysfunction in individuals, scores on the intense-personal scale predict both depression and anxiety disorders. Linking celebrity worship to poor mental well-being. However, CAS has been criticised for being reductionist as it does not take into consideration other factors such as biological predisposition or attachment type in forming celebrity worshipping. Also this assumes that everyone with poor mental health will stalk celebrities however this is not the case highlighting other factors must be present. 

Yue et al found that idol worship was associated with lower levels of work and self-esteem as well as less successful identity achievement. Teenagers worshipping TV idols showed the lowest identity achievement suggesting celebrity worship could be associated with developmental problems. Methodological issues occur as the study used telephone surveys therefore participants may have not answered truthfully. They may have used celebrity worship as an excuse for lower levels of work. Demand characteristics may have been shown, answering in ways which they thought was expected of them. However, this study also found that children who worshipped family members or real people within their social circle tended to have higher levels of self-esteem and educational achievement. This is likely because such admiration in those that have an impact on the teenagers life will likely produce a greater positive outcome than celebrities where only a one-way parasocial relationship exists. 

Philips study revealed high profile celebrity suicides were often followed by an increased number of suicides among the general population. Highlight the negative and dangerous consequences of celebrity worship. However, such studies are correlational therefore cause and effect are difficult to determine. It may be other confounding variables that affected subsequent suicide rates. For example the amount of media coverage the celebrity suicide received and also the way in which it was reported likely will have an effect.

Sheridan et al suggested pathological worshippers often were drawn to rebellious, entertaining and anti-social celebrities and therefore may then emulate similar behaviour with negative consequences for the worshipper such as suicide. Therefore research has real world applications in how celebrity deaths should be reported in the media. The media should not glamorise the death and detract information away from other mental health or drug related problems that the individual may have been dealing with, which led to their death. Hopefully reducing the negative behaviours shown by celebrity worshippers. 

Issues with most research studies are they ignore evolutionary explanations of celebrity worship. Such explanations suggest it is natural for humans to look up to those who receive attention because this is an indication of them succeeding in life. Therefore we look at those who have achieved fame and fortune and attempt to emulate them in hope of becoming successful. 

Evolutionary explanations of the attraction of celebrity (8+16)

Humans possess a love for novelty, known as neophilla. For females choosing a mate this would have led to a demand of creative displays from potential mates in the EEA (environment of evolutionary adaptation). Mate choice in the EEA may have favoured creativity, which would explain why many characteristics unique to humans such as music, art and humour have developed. 

Gossip and language have evolved to fulfil several functions; one is communication and social interaction within a group. Dunbar believed during the EEA groups grew large therefore gossip became an effective way of passing information about social relationships and hierarchies. Gossipping increased knowledge of events within a group and 'good gossipers' enhanced survival chances as they were aware of rivalries, affairs of others and knew information regarding vital resources. 

Natural selection may have favoured development of skills that enhance survival. But sexual selection may have favoured minds prone to creativity and fantasy. Celebrities have several of these qualities, therefore evolutionary explanations suggest we will inevitably find them attractive. It is also suggested individuals desire to become celebrities, therefore through imitating them it is thought to bring about similar resources, production and reproduction opportunities, therefore has adaptive value. 

Shirashi et al discovered an enzyme which correlated with novelty seeking behaviour. Genetic differences cause people to produce different variations of an enzyme called MAOA (monoamine oxidase). Researchers found that one form of this enzyme was associated with higher scores of novelty seeking behaviour suggesting there may be a genetic origin for neophilla and our attraction to creative people may be an evolved response. However, this assumption is based on correlational data, therefore we cannot determine cause and effect. Other variables may have effected production of the enzyme. Also this only explains love of novelty and attraction to creative people. But, it does not explain how or why this occurs. 

Gossipping may help elevate status and cement social relationships improving survival chances. This may explain the appeal of celebrity journalism as celebrities are seen as the top of the hierarchy. Keeping up to date with celebrities behaviours is seen as beneficial to shaping ones own behaviour. Celebrity magazines allow individuals to do this, therefore explains their popularity. However, the majority of celebrity gossip magazines are read by females. Therefore this explanation may not apply to males therefore lacks external validity and wider generalisations. Weakening the evolutionary approach as it suggests all humans would want to find out information about celebrities, which is not the case. 

Sexual selection explains that creative traits are proffered because they are deemed 'attractive' however this does not not provide a complete explanation as to why these traits are deemed attractive in the opposite sex. Fieldman found females were attracted to male celebrities because of qualities such as toughness, stamina and high levels of testosterone, all indicators of good genetic quality and the ability to provide resources. These findings support evolutionary explanations as such qualities increased survival and reproduction chances explaining female interest in male celebrities. However, this theory cannot explain out interest in homosexual celebrities as if celebrity attraction served an evolutionary advantage our interests should be limited to heterosexual celebrities. However, this is not the case further highlighting the evolutionary explanation as reductionist and incomplete. 

Most evolutionary explanations are post-hoc therefore difficult to scientifically prove or disprove. Therefore evolutionary theories remain speculative and therefore difficult to determine their actual influence. Such theories are reductionist as they reduce behaviour to a single explanation and down to adaptive fitness. It ignores other explanations e.g. psychological explanations and parasocial relationships. This is deterministic as behaviour is seen to be driven by biological factors with no consideration for the role of free will or conscious thought. Also not everyone finds celebrities interesting and attractive which this explanation cannot account for, further highlighting that a purely evolutionary explanation is unable to explain our attraction to celebrities. 

Social-psychological explanations for attraction of celebrity (8+16)

Celebrities are attractive due to their popularity, wealth and glamour therefore fans aspire to be like them. Therefore celebrity attraction can be explained through Social Learning theory (SLT). This proposes learning effects occur with celebrities acting as role model for us to observe and imitate their behaviour in the belief it will bring similar levels of attractiveness and success. 

Parasocial relationships provide another explanation. These form outside a person's normal network of friends with the celebrity normally unaware of the person who has created this parasocial relationship. These relationships may be appealing to fans as they are low demand and people do not have the risk of criticism or rejection. Other explanations suggest frequent and repeated exposure to a celebrity causes them to become attractive and we find them comforting and trustworthy over time. 

The Absorption-Addiction model suggests admiration can lead some to resort to more extreme behaviours to maintain satisfaction with their parasocial relationship. Giles et al identified 3 levels in this process: entertainment social; fans are attracted to celebrities because of their perceived ability to entertain us. Intense personal; this aspect reflects intensive and compulsive feelings about the celebrity. Borderline pathological; this is characterised by uncontrollable behaviours towards the celebrities.

Schippa et al found those who saw a celebrity as attractive and similar to themselves, were most likely to form parasocial relationships. Additionally, the celebrity had to appear real or believable to allow viewers to compare themselves to them in similar ways. This supports the idea of parasocial relationships forming and causing celebrity attraction as we are most likely to form normal relationships with those similar to us, therefore it is likely to be the same with celebrities. These findings were based on a meta-analysis which has the strength of using several studies as support for conclusions. Therefore may increase the reliability and validity of conclusions. However, it relies on the reliability of other research studies. Therefore this must be considered before we draw firm conclusive as to how parasocial relationships form and cause celebrity attraction. 

Cole and Leets found those with anxious ambivalent attachments were most susceptible to developing parasocial relationships with celebrities. This attachment type is characterised by individuals concern that others will not return their desire for intimacy. Therefore they use celebrities to satisfy their need for closeness. Those with avoidant-attachment types were least likely to develop real life or parasocial relationships as they find intimate relationships difficult. This provides strength for the parasocial relationship explanation as individual differences are considered giving reliability to results as an individuals attachment type is expected to generalise across all relationships. Therefore is expected to reflect onto any parasocial relationships too. 

Research may oversimplify social process which is an issue regarding a social psychological explanation. Individuals are not attracted to every celebrity similar to themselves and their is no single personal types that engages in celebrity admiration more so than another. Not all motivational processes are considered therefore this is a deterministic approach, as some may engage in following of celebrities through free will and choice

There are problems which can occur as a result of celebrity obsession for example individuals undertaking social comparison with celebrities, which is encouraged by the media e.g. such as materialism where people believe and pursue the idea that happiness can only be achieved through fame and fortune. Such pursuits may prevent people from achieving actual personal growth and happiness. Another problem is media portrays celebrities with perfect bodies and appearances. This may cause impressionable young people to try and copy such appearances. Seen to be encourages by the media through celebrity diets, which may lead to eating disorders. 

Biological factors are also ignored, therefore creating a reductionist approach in determining attraction to celebrities, where a combination of both psychological and evolutionary explanations may be better suited. For example repeated exposure may cause celebrities to seem comforting and trustworthy. This may have had previous adaptive value highlighting an interaction of elements that may have caused attraction.

Explanations for the persuasiveness of television advertising (8+16)

The elaboration-likelihood model in media persuasion (8+16)

Petty et al suggested two different routes to persuasion; the central route to persuasion is appropriate of the audience focuses on the message and the peripheral route if the audience focuses on the context of the message. 

Need for cognition (NC) determines the route taken. Some individuals enjoy thinking about the information they receive and analyse problems and thus have a high NC; individuals like this are likely to take the central route to persuasion. In contrast, those with low NC rely on opinions of credible others and the context of the message to make a decision and therefore are more likely to take the peripheral route. 

Attitudes changes through the central route are longer lasting and less susceptible to subsequent attempts to change them, than those conducted through the peripheral route. It is suggested most human beings are cognitive misers, relying on simple and time efficient strategies when making decisions. 

Haugtvedt et al found that attitude change in high NC individuals was based more on the attribute of the product in an advert, while for low NC individuals, simple peripheral cues were more important in shaping attitudes. This supports the claim that the central route of persuasion is more effective for high NC individuals. However, this was a laboratory study advertising a fictional brand therefore results may not reflect that of what would occur in real life therefore may also lack external validity. In real life brand familiarity would play a role in persuasion as studies suggest repeated exposure can lead to a more positive view. This would likely interact with NC to determine whether the individual is persuaded. 

Milani et al found computer mediated communication (CMC) was more likely to activate the central route of persuasion therefore results in fewer opinion changes than face to face interaction. Individuals would be less likely to change their view through CMC as they would be more likely to think deeply about the information rather than being swayed by emotion which could occur in a face for face condition. However, this study only involved the use of one group of students therefore lacks external validity and may not generalise to other situations. 

Strength of the model includes it focuses on the internal processes of attitude change which is important in the understanding of how attitudes are formed and changed at a cognitive level. This model is suggested to be more realistic than the Hovland-Yale model of persuasion as it suggests there are tow routes to persuasion not just one solitary route. There is also emphasis on the importance of the context of the information, e.g. communicator or importance of the message, which likely plays a key role in persuasion.

However, the model can be argued to be oversimplified only containing two processing systems. Use of a continuum may be more realistic as it is likely an individual will use several types of processing when forming attitudes. Also it is not clear how the central and peripheral routes interact meaning it may be difficult to determine which system will be used. 

The application of the Hovland-Yale model in media persuasion (8+16)

This model suggests persuasive communication has 3 elements; the source: person giving the message needs to be credible and attractive, the message: in some situations a repetitive message which appeals to people's fears is the most effective, and audience factors such as the audience's self esteem can be important in terms of the effectiveness of a communication.

Hovland's team identified 3 factors that influenced persuasion; source factors suggest credible experts are more likely to persuade than non-experts. If a non-expert presents an extreme view audiences will likely resist and look to discredit the source. Popular attractive sources are more persuasive then non-attractive sources e.g. Bono has become a well known spokesperson for the plight of African Nations.

Message factors suggest we must understand a message to be persuaded and we are more likely to be persuaded by messages that we think are not trying to persuade us. Also low and high fear messages are not as effective as moderate fear messages. Low levels of fear do not motivate, while high fear can create too much fear preventing the message from being processed properly. Humour also appears to result in long term attitude change and persuasion. Whereas moderate fear level messages result in more short term changes.

Audience factors suggest high intelligence audience are less likely to be persuaded than low intelligence audiences, as they will likely be confident in their own beliefs making them harder to persuade. Audiences with higher involvement in a topic will typically react differently to audiences with low involvement when exposed to a persuasive message. Young children are also more easily persuaded as they do not understand the persuasive intentions of the messages. 

Igartua et al found inserting messages in an entertainment context induced cognitive processing to achieve a more favourable attitude about the messages e.g. using fictional short stories to illustrate HIV/AIDS prevention. Results found the better quality fictional story, the more favourable attitude towards prevention was achieved, highlighting audience and message factors interact. Through entertaining messages the audience members became involved in an issue that they previously may have had no involvement suggesting the limitations of audience factors can be overcome if the nature of the message is changed accordingly. A methodological issue is self-report was used. The level of agreement rated may have been subjective to that day therefore results may lack validity.

Lewis et al found fear-arousing messages to be effective short term, straight after exposure in a drink driving campaign. However, if a positive humorous campaign was shown this was more effective in producing long term attitude change. Pre-exposure attitudes and attitude immediately after exposure were assessed using questionnaires therefore raises issues of demand characteristics and social desirability. Participants may have answered in a pro-social way against drink driving as they felt that is what was expected of them. Also because they felt campaigning against drink driving is more socially acceptable than ignoring the issue. 

Real world application of the model includes use of designing of media campaigns as entertaining campaigns are suggested to have a longer lasting effect. This could be used positively to help create more successful campaigns to create longer lasting opinion and behaviour changes regarding dangerous lifestyle choices. 

However,the model cannot explain how persuasion actually happens it simply concentrates on the steps needed for the persuasion process. It also assumes that attitude change occurs from the understanding of a message, but simply understanding a message does not always lead to persuasion and vice versa. The elaboration likelihood model explains persuasion can take place without full understanding of a message.

The Hovland-Yale model is argued to be over simplified as it only suggests there is one route to persuasion when it is likely persuasion involves more complex interaction from several components, it is too reductionist. Therefore the elaboration likelihood model may be more realistic in explaining media persuasion as it suggests there are two routes of persuasion suggesting a more complex system than the Hovland-Yale model.

Effects of video games and computers (8+16)

Video games have been found to have positive effects in encouraging helping behaviour, increasing social communication and understanding, also in providing therapeutic effects. Multi-player games that involve other players increase socialisation. Kahne et al found that the majority of those who played The Sims also described learning about the problems in society and learning about social issues while playing. 

Lenhart et al found those who played Halo or The Sims were more committed to civic participation. Also those who engaged in social discussions e.g. online forums, were more civically and politically committed. Suggesting video games and computer used can promote such behaviour which is beneficial for society. Surveys were used which lack control it may be those with civic participation interests chose games which fit in with this established interest and it may not have been the game encouraging behaviour. This is correlational data which limits our ability to draw cause and effect of how video games influence the development of pro-social behaviour. However, this was a large scale survey therefore results may be reliable. 

Gonzales et al argued that Facebook wall have positive influences on our self-esteem as they tend to be overwhelmingly positive. In a study where participants either had to look at their Facebook wall or a mirror, those who looked at their wall rated themselves more positivity than the other group. A methodological issue is that self-report measures were used and participants reported on how they felt. This may not have been a reliable measure as it is subjective to their feelings that day and other extraneous variables may have influenced feelings of self-esteem. These are not considered therefore results may lack internal validity and reliability. 

Video games have been successfully used in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder, helping individuals relieve psychological trauma in a low threat environment. Games such as Tetris have been found to limit the minds tendency to flashback to traumatic events. As, it is thought these games use the same sensory channels.

Video games have been found to have potential negative effects with some studies finding increased physiological arousal, hostile feelings and aggressive behaviour. Other studies have found players to be more verbally and physically aggressive while some meta-analysis suggests a consistent link between violent game play and aggressive behaviour. Experimental studies by Stone et al found short term increases in physiological arousal and hostile and aggressive behaviour following sessions of violent game play compared to sessions of non-violent game play. 

Gentile and Anderson found as video games have become more violent the level of aggression shown by both adults and children has increased. However, research has not found a definitive link. Gentile et al proposed a bi-directional model where although violent video games may increase aggressive behaviour, it is just as likely that those who have aggressive personality traits will orientate themselves towards them. Aggressive behaviour cannot be studied directly to ethical grounds therefore other form of behaviour are used e.g. participants blasting opponents with white noise. This is not representative of real life violence therefore the study lacks external validity as results may not generalise to real life. The role of personality and biology is not considered as an influence of the behaviour copied from video games, therefore the study is reductionist. 

Karpinski et al found the majority of university students that used Facebook everyday underachieved by up to an entire grade compared to those who did not use the site. Facebook users were found to spend 1-5 hours a week studying, while non-users spent 11-15 hours a week studying. This highlights negative effects of computer use suggesting too much can effect negatively of education. Karpinski acknowledges this may not directly link to excessive Facebook use and lower grades, but there is a clear link between the two. Personality factors may be involved and perhaps Facebook users were more prone to distraction regardless of computer use.

Media influences on anti-social behaviour (8+16)

Bandura's social learning theory (SLT) suggests children learn aggressive behaviour either through direct experience or vicarious experience. Children observe the actions of media models and later may imitate these behaviours. Media can portray positive or negative consequences of anti-social behaviour. If the model gains their objective, children will be more likely to copy the behaviour believing they will gain reward themselves. The more realistic the televised scenes appear to the child the more likely they will repeat the behaviour. 

Cognitive priming is the activation of existing aggressive thoughts and feelings, and explains why children observe one behaviour of TV and commit another. After viewing violence the viewer is primed to respond in an anti-social way. 

Desentisitation explain that normally an individuals anxiety towards violence inhibits its use. Those who are not used to watching media violence are likely yo be shocked when witnessing real life violence. However, those who frequently expose themselves to media violence will likely become 'desenitised'. Therefore exposure to media violence generalises to real world settings causing less anxiety making violent acts easier to commit. 

Phillips found a correlation between crime statistics over the 10 days following a televised boxing match. A rise in the number of murders was found, but no such rise occurred after televised super bowl matches. This provides support for observational SLT suggesting a positive correlation between observing violence on TV and increased anti-social behaviour. An issue that occurred within Bandura's theory and bobo doll study was it was suggested SLT may not generalise to adults. However, this study suggests observational learning and SLT applies to adults, increasing SLT's validity and generalisations across age groups. However, correlational data cannot establish cause and effect and other variables may play a role in leading to increased aggression. There is also no way of knowing whether those who committed the murders watcher the boxing match. Other confounding variables that are unaccounted for may have caused the increased anti-social behaviour. 

Drabman et al observed children viewing violent films and found children showed less emotional response suggesting desensitisation giving the theory validity. Those who are desensitised are more likely to see anti-social behaviour as normal therefore are more likely to engage in it. Males may expose themselves to more violence e.g. in media and sport, therefore more likely to become desensitised, supported by UK crime statistics which have found men more likely to engage in violence than women. Ethical concerns are raised as children were exposed to violent films which could have been distressing or caused further desensitisation. The study was conducted in laboratory conditions therefore lacks external validity and cannot provide conclusive evidence that media desensitisation links to real world desensitisation.

St. Helena, a British colony, had TV introduced for the first time and its effects were observed. No significant rise was found in anti-social behaviour after its introduction suggesting TV has little effect in general. However, it is unclear what the long term effects may be as the children were not used to TV therefore may not have found it interesting. A methodological problem is assuming the impact of TV would be direct, a long term observation would have been better suited. If changes did occur later in life it may be due to other extraneous variables, highlighting the difficulty in measuring effects of the media. 

A methodological weakness in media research is most studies are conducted in laboratory settings. Under these conditions participants may show demand characteristics as they are aware they are being observed, and lacks ecological validity as they are not representative of a real life setting. However, research may have real life application for example the 9pm watershed, this helps to limit anti-social behaviour seen by children as research has found evidence it may influence behaviour. 

Media influences of pro-social behaviour (8+16)

Social learning theory, parental mediation and developmental factors can be used to explain influences of media on pro-social behaviour. Bandura's social learning theory (SLT) suggests that children learn by observing behaviour and them imitating it, if the expectation of reward is greater than one of punishment. This process occurs with behaviour seen in the media. The depiction of pro-social acts, e.g. sharing, will likely be in accordance with already established norms therefore will be reinforces and become internalised. Children are more likely to be rewarded for pro-social act e.g. through praise and attention which then further encourages behaviour.

Parental mediation can be used to increase chances of behaviour being repeated through explaining abstract concepts. Although a large number of children watch television on their own, watching with the presence of a parent and discussing any ambiguous or disturbing messages and following up the concepts presented in the programme can increase the chance of the behaviour being internalised.

Research suggests that skills linked with pro-social behaviour develop throughout childhood and adolescence. Therefore developmental differences are expected in the degree in which media influences children at different ages. 

Mares et al stated pro-social behaviour is only likely to be learnt if the child is shown the exact steps for the behaviour. This may be because children find it difficult to interpret abstract pro-social act. Therefore the exact influence the media has is difficult to determine. As, often the exact steps of pro-social behaviour are not shown in the media.

Poulous et al found when young children were shown an episode of Lassie involving a child rescuing a dog, they were then more likely yo help distressed puppies, than those who watched a neutral TV programme. Children were shown the altruistic behaviour of helping a dog therefore directly imitated this behaviour suggesting pro-social behaviour is more likely to occur when the exact steps are shown. However, this study was conducted in a laboratory therefore lacks external validity. In the study the children would have known they had to pay attention to the video. Whereas in real life they may not have been as attentive therefore reducing generalisations. Also the study suffers age bias and can only explain how this age group has their behaviour affected by the media. 

Rice et al found parental mediation enhanced the learning affects of Sesame Street, which  was originally launched with pro-social aims. Children from higher socio-economic backgrounds appeared to benefit the most. Possibly due to their parents having more time to watch TV and discuss messages with their children. Those who watched without parental mediation did not internalise the messages therefore were less likely yo repeat the behaviour. Highlighting the importance of mediation in learning behaviour from the media. Issues occur in measuring pro-social behaviour as it relies on self-report of the parents which may not be truthful. Also only short term effects can be measured. It may not influence later life. 

Rosenkoetter suggested with parental mediation children as young as seven could understand complex moral messages contained in adult sitcoms. Parents also reported children as more helpful. A positive correlation was found between these two variables. Children who watched more pro-social sitcoms showed higher levels of altruistic behaviour supporting the idea of pro-social media leading to pro-social behaviour. However, this was correlational therefore cause and effect cannot be determined, all extraneous variables were not controlled. For example the children who were already more pro-socially inclines may have then went on to watch more sitcoms as they fitted in with existing beliefs and attitudes. 

Other research findings suggest exposure to filmed models has less of an affect than exposure to real life models. Children may understand what they are seeing but do not apply it to real life settings. Therefore determining how much of an effect pro-social media has is difficult. 

Discuss research into group display as an evolutionary explanation for aggression (8+16)

Warfare is costly and dangerous to individuals therefore there must be an adaptive benefit to make it worthwhile. It allows one group status over another, which could gain them access to their resources, land and women. Evolutionary explanations suggest those who engage in war will have a higher chance of survival, as a group, therefore will have a higher chance of reproduction.

Chagnon found that warfare exists among may modern day tribal societies e.g. Yanomano of the amazon rain forest. The most frequent cause for conflict is the abduction of women to increase their village size. This supports the explanation that war may increase chances of survival and passing on genes in reproduction. It was also suggested that battle can give a man warrior status increasing chances of attraction a female. Therefore this supports the evolutionary view that warfare may increase access to resources and help in increasing reproductive success, as men successful in warfare will likely gain access to more females. However, criticisms of this study include the Yanomano's behaviour could be explained through other factors such as a biological basis which predisposed them to aggressive tendencies or through social learning and conditioning such aggressive behaviours may develop. Therefore this study cannot provided conclusive evidence towards an evolutionary view for group aggression. 

Another explanation of why warfare has emerged could be due to humanity's changing lifestyle, changing of nomadic to one of tied to the land. Therefore individuals had more to lose as a result of conflict, they could not simply move away and avoid it. LeBlanc and Register suggested warfare was a consequence of environmental changes, such as raising population and dwindling food supplies. This further weakens the argument for evolution playing a leading role in development of aggressive group display. 

Xenophobia (fear of foreigners) is another example of group display which in the past favoured natural selection. Wilson claims xenophobia has been documented in 'virtually every group of animals displaying higher forms of social organisation' suggesting that it is favourable in natural selection. Shaw and Wong argued this mechanism would have aided in avoiding attacks from strangers helping to increase survival chances. Having exaggerated negative stereotypes about strangers is adaptive as an over perception of threat is less costly than an under perception.

Foldesi found at football matches the racist conduct of extremist supporters led to increased spectator violence in general and xenophobic outbursts. This may provide support for an evolutionary basis as the supporters experiencing xenophobia may have caused them to behave aggressively through defence mechanisms as they feared the other racial groups. However, this explanation is deterministic and ignores the role of free will in behaviour. A criticism of xenophobia is it is more likely to be learnt through principles of social learning as no all humans experience xenophobia despite all humans coming from the same evolutionary basis. This intolerance of strangers may have been learnt from parents and peers at a young age therefore causing them to see other races negatively, explaining why such behaviour is shown in adults. Therefore group displays are unlikely to have a purely evolutionary basis and to assume this would be reductionist. 

Research into group display has led to campaigns being launched to reduce racism in sport and xenophobic displays at football matches e.g. the UK football charity 'show racism the red card'. This highlights positive real world application.

Both Chagnon and Foldesi's research demonstrates that aggressive group displays still occur today. Through research it is likely several factors play a role. However, issue with evolutionary theories is they cannot be experimentally tested or observed, they are purely based on assumptions. Evolutionary theories do o consider the role of free will in behaviour therefore are deterministic. They suggest all behaviour is dictated by our evolutionary past and does not consider how biological and social influences interact, which may provide a better understanding of group display. 

Discuss evolutionary explanations of human aggression including infidelity and jealousy (8+16)

Males can use both short term and long term mating strategies to maximise chances of reproduction. Long term strategies involve investing time and energy over a number of years supporting the mate in bringing up the child. Unless the man prevents the women from having relationships with other men, through mate guarding, he can never be certain he is the father of the child. Male sexual jealousy may therefore have evolved to prevent infidelity by women and reduce the risk of cuckoldry. 

Mate guarding may also be used in short term strategies. In the context of a 'one night stand' men can have sex with the female with little biological cost. They may then want to keep the female away from other males, in order for them to maximise the chance of their child being born, with the immediate motivator for this likely to be jealously. 

Shackleton et al demonstrated the link between mate retention, jealously and violence. A positive correlation was found between men using more mate retention techniques and more violence supporting the theory of jealously being linked to long term mate retention strategies. Within a committed relationship the female would have taken some of the male's resources, therefore he will show signs of jealously and violence in order to protect these resources. Methodological issues occur as questionnaires were used which may have affected the accuracy of responses therefore reducing reliability and validity of findings. This is a sensitive topic, and asking those to describe violence with current partners may lead to social desirability with participants responding in a way that will allow them to be viewed favourably by others, they may not be truthful in answers, therefore invalidating results. 

An important implication of research is early male retention strategies could be used as an early warning that males may show violence towards the female partners in the future. This findings from such studies could be used to alert friends and family to danger signs which could lead to future aggressive acts.

Camilleir and Quinsey found men convicted of raping their partners were more likely to have experienced cuckoldry risks previously, compared to men convicted of non-sexual abuse. This supports an evolutionary explanation suggesting jealously can reduce risk of mate infidelity as if they sexually assert themselves this will reduce the risk of the female having an affair and reducing the risk of cuckoldry and investing resources in offspring which isn't theirs. However, individual differences are not accounted, confounding variables such as innate aggressive tendencies, may increase chances of men acting physically or sexually aggressive. Today we are not exposed to the same evolutionary pressures which once were, so assuming such pressures still affect our behaviour is reductionist.

Both Shackleford, and Camilleir and Quinsey's studies highlight that jealousy or the partners' infidelity can lead to increased levels of aggression. However, such research focuses towards male mate retention strategies and male violence against women. Although, women have also been observed to engage in aggressive mate retention strategies. Research suggests women carry out violent behaviour towards their partners just as often as men do, suggesting possible gender bias in majority of research.

Evolutionary determinism ignores the role of free will, however some evolutionary psychologist argue free will is an adaption as it improves our chances of survival for example evolutionary pressures give men the drive to use mate retention strategies, but they chose which ones they use. However, such an approach cannot explain why individuals use different strategies when faced with the same issue. Problems also arise as this approach, of accepted could take responsibility away from aggressive male retention strategies, providing an excuse for behaviour. 

Evolutionary explanations of infidelity and jealously can be taken to suggest aggression is entire due to evolved responses, which is reductionist. Therefore suggesting aggression is purely due to evolution is largely speculative and cannot provide a suitable explanation for our complex social interaction processes.

Outline and evaluate genes and genetic explanations for aggression (8+16)

Genes and genetics are not thought to be the sole causes of aggression but may predispose us to act in an aggressive way when the correct environmental situations occur. Research suggests aggressive tendencies may be in part inherited. Many studies have been used to research this link including twin studies, adoption studies and studies into certain genes being associated with aggression. For example MAOA gene has been associated with higher levels of aggressive behaviour. This gene regulates serotonin, which lower levels of have been associated with aggression. 

McGuffin et al found a concordance rate of 87% for aggressive behaviour among MZ twins supporting a genetic basis for aggression, as MZ had a high correlation than DZ twins. MZ twins share 100% of genes therefore this approach suggests they would show similar behaviour. However, DZ twins also has similarly high levels of aggression, a concordance rate of 72%. Methodological problems occur such as the sample size was small and restricted therefore limiting external validity and generalisations. Environmental factors may have influenced MZ concordance as they may have had more difficulty establishing an individual identity compared to DZ twins. Therefore they shared similar environmental influences causing them to have similar levels of aggression, suggesting how nature and nurture may work together in predisposing an individual to act aggressively. Therefore a combined biological and social approach may better explain tendencies for aggressive behaviour. 

Additionally, in a replication of Bandura's bobo doll experiment researchers found no difference in MZ and DZ twins aggression towards the doll, after exposure to a model showing aggression. This suggests that aggressive behaviour is likely to be a product of environmental influences and learnt through social learning opposed to being caused by genetics or nature, therefore weakening the genetic argument and proving support for a role of nurture in development of aggressive behaviour.

Brunner et al found low levels of MAOA and a defective gene among members of a Dutch family prone to criminal behaviour supporting a genetic link to aggression. However, women from the same family who were found to have the same gene did not display as much aggressive behaviour as the men therefore suggesting that gender differences exist and interact with genes in predisposing an individual to aggressive behaviour. A methodological weakness of the study includes the use of self-report. This could have led to high levels of aggression being recorded than if an observation was conducted. Those within the Dutch family would have likely valued aggressive behaviour as the family had a history of criminal behaviour. They may have reported more acts due to social desirability. Therefore this reduces reliability and validity of results creating problems in drawing a conclusion to the actual role genetics plays in aggressive behaviour. 

Both McGuffin and Brunner's studies suggest there may be a link between genetics and aggression. However such research highlights the complex relationship between genetic predispositions for aggression and the environmental factors which trigger it. Research shows that genes alone cannot offer an explanation and trying to isolate a cause for aggression within research is difficult. If a genetic predisposition can be identified this can have real world application in improving counselling, in order to reduce aggressive responses being provoked. 

Explaining aggression through genes alone is reductionist. The role of cognitive, psychological and cultural factors are not considered. It is also deterministic to assume all behaviour is dictated through genetics. The theory does not consider the role of free will and conscious thought in decision making. Those who are found to have 'aggressive' genes are not always aggressive. Therefore causing social sensitivity in research as if 'aggressive' genes are identified this could lead to stigmatising and possible measures to control or limit aggressive tendencies. It may also lead towards genetic engineering to limit chance of someone being born with such genes which would be considered highly controversial. Although research evidence varies meaning a firm conclusion of the link between genes and genetics and aggression cannot be drawn. 

Outline and evaluate neural and hormal explanations for aggression (8+16)

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that allow the brain to transmit signals from one part of the brain to another. Low levels of serotonin and high levels of dopamine have been associated with aggression. Serotonin is believed to reduce aggression by inhibiting emotional responses to stimuli that may have led to an aggressive response. Low levels of serotonin in the brain, particularly the pre-frontal cortex, have been linked with higher rates of impulsive behaviour and aggression, as the inhibiting effect is lessened. 

High levels of dopamine are believe to cause aggression in individuals. This is seen in the use of anti-psychotics, used for patients suffering schizophrenia, to reduce dopamine levels. This has been found to then reduce aggressive behaviour shown by patients.

Testosterone is the male sex hormone and has consistently been linked to aggression. This is suggested to activate regions in the brain associated to an aggressive response. Cortisol has also been linked to aggression. It is suggested cortisol heightens the awareness we have of consequences of our actions therefore lower levels may lead to increased aggressive behaviour. 

Mann et al found lower levels of serotonin were associated with high levels of aggression in males but not in females. This supports the theory that serotonin can play a mitigating tole role in aggressive behaviour as low levels were associated with increased aggression. A methodological issue is questionnaires were used to judge hostility scores therefore relied on the participants to self report. therefore participants may have shown demand characteristics and reported higher aggression, as that was the expected outcome of taking serotonin depleting drugs. Also social desirability may have affected results as individuals that valued aggression within their social group may have reported higher levels as they find it a desirable characteristic. Therefore the reliability and validity of results could be questioned therefore it is inconclusive as to the role serotonin has in aggression. 

Raleigh et al found monkey fed on high serotonin diets exhibited less aggressive behaviour than those on low serotonin diets. Other studies have found that animals bred for domestication have had increased serotonin levels over each generation, proving further support for the role serotonin plays in aggression. However, issues occur within animal research as it could be argued to be morally wrong due to the injury inflicted. Also due to difference of anatomy results may not be generalisable to humans. Therefore such research studies can help conclude a link to hormones and aggression but we cannot determine the extent the findings would be reflected in humans. 

Both Mann and Raleigh's studies provide support towards the serotonin link in aggression therefore overall can provide support that neural and hormonal factors likely influence aggressive tendencies. However, issues arise in research as most studies are based on correlational data therefore we cannot determine for certain cause and effect. Other unidentified factors may be responsible for the changes in levels of aggression and ascertaining the real cause for aggression is difficult, due to methodological problems in measuring aggression. Each study may operationalise the explanation differently making it difficult to draw firm conclusions.

Neural and hormonal explanations ignore the role of free will and environmental and social factors therefore suffer strong reductionism and determinism as it suggests neural and hormonal factors are the sole cause of our behaviour. The more accepted view is that they are one factor among a large number of factors which influences how we behave. Such views could cause stigmatising towards those with certain hormone imbalances raising socially sensitive issues as a result of research. 

A neural and hormonal explanation cannot account for those with similar levels of e.g. serotonin or testosterone displaying different levels of aggression. However, the diathesis stress model offers explanation as to how biological and environmental factors may predispose an individual to act aggressively when triggered by a certain environmental factor. Therefore that may be a more accepted approach that a purely neural or hormonal one. 

Outline and evaluate research into institutional aggression (8+16)

Most research has been conducted with the institutional setting of prisons. There are 2 major models for explaining institutional aggression. Irwin and Cressey suggested with the importation model prisoner brought their own social histories and traits with them into prison which influenced how they adapted in the prison environment. Pre-existing ideas of inmates e.g. due to age, race or gender may affect aggression shown. Prisoners may be part of subcultures within societies which value and respect violence or aggression, therefore has been reinforced outside of the prison environment, resulting in it being imported into the prison setting.

The deprivation model proposes that aggression from those in institutions is caused by stressful or oppressive conditions and the deprivations prisoners suffer. Sykes outlined 5 deprivations in prison institutes; deprivations of liberty, autonomy, goods and services, heterosexual sex and security. These can all link to lack of freedom, which is taken away from prisoners. Therefore these deprivations can lead to stress and some prisoners may behave aggressively to reduce stress or obtain resources. Therefore aggression in prison may be used to gain control. 

Harer and Steffensmeier collected data from 58 US prions including racial background and misconduct in prisons. Afro-Caribbean inmates had higher rates of violence but lower rates of alcohol and drug related misconduct, than white inmates, mirroring that of US society, supporting the importation model. An explanation of this is, within both society and prisons, Afro-Caribbean individuals may be subjected to more segregation and abuse and use aggressive responses in defence. Further supporting the importation model. However, correlational data cannot determine cause and effect and other confounding variables may affect aggressive tendencies e.g. genetics. Research focuses on Afro-Caribbean inmates creating methodological issues such as lack of external validity and limited generalisations as findings may not explain how other cultures may or may not have imported behaviours into the institutional setting.

Jiang et al analysed prison records in terms of predictions of the deprivation and importation model and found a correlation between prisoner background and violations. Further results showed overall support for both models. Findings suggest that several factors can influence the aggression shown within prisons. Therefore research can help make predictions of aggression from inmates helping to create more control over aggressive behaviours in prisons. 

Research from such studies has helped gain further understanding of how institutional aggression may be caused. However, both relied on use of prisoner record to measure aggressive behaviour. This may be more objective than using research methods with the prisoners themselves, as they may displayed demand characteristics. However, there are issues of whether all reports we accurate and whether all relevant incidents were reported. Biological influences will likely play a role and yet both studies ignore this factor making them reductionist. Research is based on the assumption that environmental factors pre-dispose individuals to violent behaviour with an institutional setting, however this is not the case. Genes and hormones are extraneous variables which are not considered which may have influences results. Therefore neither model can claim to have research support that is highly reliable or valid. 

Research into institutional aggression in prisons could lead to prison reforms as the deprivation model could suggest improving conditions would lead to less aggression. Whereas the importation model could be applied in terms of counselling for prisoners with difficult backgrounds. However, it is argued that prison should not be comfortable and many in society would be against improving conditions.

The models ignore the role of free will, making them deterministic, even within an institutional setting we have the power to control behaviour. Also no interaction between the models is considered, when an individual may act aggressively due to reasons highlighted in both models. Attributing exact reasons for aggression is difficult making the contribution of each model difficult to identify. therefore a combined approach including elements of the deprivation and importation models with consideration towards biological and social predisposing factors may be needed to determine the cause of institutional aggression.